A map represents a given area on the ground, and its scale is determined by the amount of real-world area covered on the map. Map scales refer to the relationship (or ratio) between the distance on a map and the corresponding distance on the ground, and can also be shown using a scale bar (usually found at the bottom of the map).

Different scales are used in different countries. For instance, in the US, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) publishes maps with 1:250,000, 1:100,000, 1:62,500 and 1:24,000 map scales, and in Canada, there are two map scales, 1:250,000 and 1:50,000. The first number of the scale resents a core unit of distance on the map, while the second represents that same distance on the ground. So, for a 1:24,000 map sheet, 1 inch measured on the map is equivalent to 24,000 inches in the real world. There are over 54,000 map sheets that cover every inch of the United States.

Maps are also known as large scale and small scale. Large scale includes map scales ranging from 1:2,500 to 1:50,000 while small scale includes map scales 1:250,000 to 1:7,500,000. A large scale provides more detail, but covers less ground area on the map and a small scale provides less detail, but covers a larger ground area on the map. Remember, the smaller the ratio, the larger the scale.

Different map scales provide different levels of details in terms of features presented. The map scale used for most US topographic mapping, and the most detailed, is the 1:24,000 or the 7.5-minute series. Maps at this scale cover an area measuring 7.5 minutes of latitude and 7.5 minutes of longitude and are commonly called 7.5-minute quadrangle maps. There are four 7.5 minute quads per fifteen minute quad, 32 per one degree sheet, and 128 per two degree sheet. One map covers approximately nine miles in a north-south direction and approximately 6.5 miles east-west and is approximately 29 inches high and 22 inches wide.

Maps at this scale are useful because topographic features are easy to identify, which allows for accurately determining your location. Also, the clarity of topographic features makes route-finding easier. They provide detailed information about the features of an area, including the locations of important buildings and most campgrounds, water mills, footbridges, fence lines, and private roads. They also provide excellent detail, including mountains, valleys, plains, lakes, rivers, streams, woods, vegetation, elevation contours, and railroads.

Also suitable for recreational and other activities is the 1:62,500. It provides enough detail to determine location with good accuracy. These maps cover about four times the area of one 7.5-minute map.

Other map scales in common use for topographic maps are 1:100,000 (one degree sheet) and 1: 250,000 (two degree sheet). These map scales are best for giving an overview and are useful for hunting and other activities where coverage of a large area is more important than detail. They show large areas on single map sheets, but details are limited to major features, such as boundaries, parks, airports, major roads, railroads, and streams.

Map scales control not only how features are shown, but what features are shown, and that’s why when you are planning a trip, the most important consideration in choosing the right map scale is its intended use.

To plan your hiking, backpacking or camping trip, choose the appropriate maps for your intended destination. The 1:24,000 or 7.5 minute map series are the maps of choice for hiking, backpacking, canoeing, camping and fishing. The main drawback of this map series is that several maps may be needed to provide coverage for a large area. Map scales of 1:100,000 and 1:250,000 aren’t recommended for back-country use because of the lack of topographic detail.

Before setting out, study the map and find your start and finish points. The terrain depicted on the map will help you select a suitable route, and anticipate and make best use of the features you’ll encounter. With a topographic map in front of you, you can estimate the length of your proposed adventure.

Anytime you go backpacking, packing properly is extremely important. However, the longer you plan to be away from civilization, the more important it becomes. On a one day trip, forgetting an item or two is often not a big deal-unless it’s something like a sleeping bag on a cold night or a tarp or tent on a rainy one. Usually, you can improvise or go without whatever it was that you forgot, and the only result will be some temporary discomfort until you get back to civilization the next day. However, on a five day trip, forgetting something important can cause you to have to abort your trip, or worse. Running out of food or discovering that you didn’t pack the right type of clothing can be devastating when you are two days away from any supplies.

So, how do pack properly for a long trip? In order to make sure that you have all your bases covered before you step out on the trail, it’s essential to be methodical and organized. Make a checklist of everything you’ll need. At the end of this article, there is an example of such a checklist, which you can print out and modify to fit your specific situation. The first step is to consider your basic needs. All humans need food, water, clothing and shelter before anything else. When backpacking, of course, you must carry all of these essentials with you.

For food, you’ll need to decide how many meals you need, and of what type. For example, on Day 1 you probably won’t need breakfast because you will eat before you leave the house. However, depending on what time you intend to reach the trail, you may or may not need lunch that day. On Day 5, you probably won’t need dinner. Decide what you intend to eat each day, and make a list of the items needed to prepare each meal. Unless you are in a place where water is scarce, you will probably want to pack mostly dehydrated meals, which are lighter and easier to carry. Also, make sure you have some emergency rations in case something comes up and your trip is inadvertently extended. Emergency rations should be lightweight, nonperishable and nourishing. Extra energy bars and extra oatmeal make great emergency rations.

Also, don’t forget cooking utensils. If you are planning on cooking food over a campfire instead of a stove, make sure that the place you are going to allows fires. If you are bringing a stove, make sure you have enough fuel. You might decide to get a backpacking cook set, but for most meals a pot to boil water, a bowl, a spoon and a mug are all you’ll need.

The next essential item is water. Look at guidebooks and maps for the trails you are taking. Are there streams, rivers, or other sources of water available? Bring a small water bottle to drink from on the trail and a larger container to store/carry water in. If water is not plentiful, you will need to be able to carry enough on your back to get you through to the next water source. Also, most sources of water in the woods are not safe to drink from, as they often contain parasites such as giardia or cryptosporidium that will make you very ill. Bring a water filter or iodine tablets to purify your drinking water.

Packing the right type of clothing is essential on a long trip. Check the weather, and remember that if you are traveling in the mountains it is usually a good deal cooler than it is in the valleys below. You don’t need or want to pack a separate outfit for each day that you will be out, but try to pack at least one item of clothing for each situation that you might encounter, such as hot day followed by a cool night. Do have at least one change of clothes in case the ones you are wearing get wet. Pack at least one pair of extra socks in case your feet get wet. Also, remember to pack a poncho to keep you dry if in rains. Most cases of hypothermia don’t happen in winter-they happen in spring, summer or fall, and caused by wet clothes sucking the vital warmth right out of your body! Also, make sure to bring appropriate hiking shoes.

There are different options for backpacking shelters, and you can choose between them based on who you will be traveling with and what the temperature will be at night. The most common shelter is a tent-make sure to get one made specifically for backpacking so that it is light enough to carry. If you’re sharing a tent with others, make sure the one you use is the appropriate size. If it’s going to be warm at night, you might decide to only pack a sleeping bag and a tarp. In areas with a lot of trees and little flat ground, a hammock is another good choice. Make sure to have a sleeping bag with a low enough temperature rating for the weather that’s expected during your trip.

Now that you have your basic needs covered, make a checklist of other essentials that you’ll need on your trip, including a first aid kit, a flashlight, matches or a lighter, a pocketknife, and of course toilet paper! Don’t forget rope, especially if you are in bear country and will need to set up a bear bag. A map and a compass are essential, while a GPS device is helpful but optional. Any extra items, such as a book to read, an MP3 player, or deodorant, should be considered only after everything else is packed and you can see how heavy your pack is. You may decide these extra items are not so important after all!

To assist you in packing for your trip, here is a handy checklist that you can fill out. Check items off the list as you pack them, and you are guaranteed to have everything you need in your pack when you hit the trail!

5-Day Trip Checklist

Food

Day 1

Lunch ­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­   _____________________________________________

Dinner   _____________________________________________

Snacks/Dessert _______________________________________

Day 2

Breakfast ____________________________________________

Lunch      ____________________________________________

Dinner     ____________________________________________

Snacks/Dessert _______________________________________

Day 3

Breakfast ____________________________________________

Lunch      ____________________________________________

Dinner     ____________________________________________

Snacks/Dessert_______________________________________

Day 4

Breakfast ____________________________________________

Lunch      ____________________________________________

Dinner     ____________________________________________

Snacks/Dessert _______________________________________

Day 5

Breakfast ____________________________________________

Lunch      ____________________________________________

Snacks/Dessert _______________________________________

Stove/Fuel

Pot

Cup

Bowl

Spoon/Fork

Tent

Sleeping Bag

Sleeping Pad

Clothing

Waterproof Poncho

Small water bottle

Water filter or iodine tablets

Large water jug

First Aid Kit

Any medications that you take

Emergency Firestarting Kit

Matches and/or lighters (carry in a waterproof plastic bag)

Flashlight/Lantern

Topographical Map

Compass

Toilet Paper

Garden spade for digging a cathole

Rope

Do you remember that scene in Disney’s Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, when Snow White is lost in the forest and all the cute, cuddly forest animals come out to help her and comfort her? Do you ever wish your hiking trips could be like that? Well, too bad. Nature is not like a Disney movie! However, when you are out in the wilderness you can still coexist peacefully with the wildlife. In fact, it’s your responsibility to do so. You don’t have to avoid wild animals completely-you can still watch them and even get some great photos. Just follow the guidelines below to make sure that you are being a well-mannered houseguest while you’re in their home.

Rule #1- Don’t feed the animals. Feeding wild animals encourages them to associate people with food. This is not good for either the animal or humans. Animals that associate people with food are much more likely to come marauding through your campsite at night, tearing up your backpack and leaving you without any breakfast. In the case of a large animal such as a bear, this could lead to the animal either hurting a human or being trapped and slaughtered. Once animals get a taste of human food, they tend to prefer it to the natural food they are supposed to be eating. Human foods can cause some pretty familiar-sounding ailments in wild animals, including arthritis, tooth decay and ulcers. Come to think of it, perhaps we should stop eating “human food” too! Also, make sure you aren’t unintentionally feeding hungry forest creatures. Clean your campsite up before you leave, and pack out food scraps instead of leaving them at camp.

Rule #2-Distance Makes the Heart Grow Fonder. It is fine to observe wild animals from a safe distance, but don’t get too close. Try to stay at least 100 yards away from bears. If you have any common sense at all, you shouldn’t want to be any closer! For other large animals, such as elk, deer, or moose, stay at least 25 yards away. Getting too close to wild animals can frighten them, and you could end up getting injured. Also, rabies is a concern in some areas. Keep as much distance as you can between yourself and any animal that’s acting unnaturally, especially a normally nocturnal animal that’s out during the day. If you get bit, a series of painful shots is required to keep you from foaming at the mouth. The bottom line: if you want a close up, invest in a camera with a digital zoom.

Rule #3- Leave baby animals alone. Yes, they look cute and cuddly, and if you see a baby animal all by itself you may be tempted to think that it can’t possibly survive without your help. However, if you attempt to intervene you will probably do more harm than good. Humans rarely leave babies alone for any length of time, but many species of animals do. It’s not poor parenting, it’s just the way they naturally raise their young. Remember, many species of animals are single parents. Mom has to have time to get food for herself and/or her baby, and she can’t hire a babysitter. So, she leaves the young one hidden in a safe spot, and goes a short distance away to attend to her own needs. This is especially common with deer. If you play with or pet the baby, the mother may not continue to care for it when she returns. If you try to carry the baby animal out of the woods with you, you are basically creating an orphaned animal that may never get a chance to live a natural life. If you truly believe that a baby animal has been abandoned or is in danger, contact a forest ranger.

So, those are the three basic rules for interacting with wildlife, even animals of the cute, plant-eating variety. Most people are not afraid of deer, elk, or any of the smaller mammals that inhabit our wilderness areas. People are most frightened of carnivores like bears and poisonous creatures like snakes. Here are some specific guidelines for dealing with these creatures.

Bears- In the continental United States, you are most likely to encounter a black bear or a grizzly, depending on your location. Grizzly bears are much larger than black bears, and they have a reputation for being more aggressive. However, any bear that’s grown up past the cub stage can kill you with its bare paws, no matter what species it belongs to. Fortunately, human/bear encounters rarely end in this fashion. The media loves to publicize fatal bear attacks when they happen, but they are rare. For example, the Bear Conservation Center estimates that approximately 3 people are killed each year by bears, 2 by grizzlies and 1 by black bears. Unless they are sick, injured, or have been fed by humans before, most bears will try to avoid humans. To avoid becoming a statistic, make sure to follow the following rules in bear country:

§         Make some noise as you walk. If bears can here you coming, they will usually avoid you.

§         Hike with a friend-the more people in your group, the less likely a bear is to approach you.

§         If you are staying the night in bear country, put all of your smellables up in a bear bag at night. A “smellable”  is anything that a bear can smell, including food, utensils that have touched food, cosmetics, deodorant, etc. Also, you can purchase bear-proof canisters for these items. Store them well away from camp. Do not bring food items into your tent-this is the last place you want a bear to come looking for munchies!

§         Leave bear cubs alone.  They are not teddy bears!

§         If you do encounter a bear, don’t run! Walk away slowly. If the bear does try to touch you, drop the ground and assume the fetal position. Hopefully, he will see you aren’t a threat and move away. If you have pepper spray to use, aim for the face. You need to get the bear in the eyes and the nose for the spray to be effective.

Snakes- Snakes are slightly more of a danger than bears, if only because it’s a lot easier to accidentally step on one. Snakes love to hang out and sun themselves on trails, and many species are naturally camouflaged. To protect yourself, learn how to identify the species of poisonous snakes that are native to the area you are visiting. In areas with a lot of high grass or thickly piled leaves, sweep the area ahead of you with a long stick. Watch where you step, and if you do see a snake, give it a wide berth and try to go around it. If it appears aggressive, back away slowly. Snakes don’t really want to bite humans-it’s something they do if they feel threatened. Please a poisonous snake unless it is directly threatening you and you have no other option. They are not evil creatures, and should be allowed to exist in their natural environment.

Wolves/coyotes- Like bears, wolves and coyotes rarely attack humans. However, coyotes in particular may prey on small pets, and it’s not wise to leave children unattended in areas where wolves and coyotes are common. If you are approached, stand in a group, try to appear as large as possible, and throw rocks or sticks.

Big Cats- Bobcats, lynxes and mountain lions are generally shy and secretive. Bobcats and lynxes are really not a danger to anyone unless they are cornered. Mountain lions, however, may hunt pets and/or small children. To be safe, keep everyone together in a group-don’t let kids or pets become stragglers. If you see a mountain lion, stand tall and don’t turn your back. This will help signal to the mountain lion that you are not prey. If you do get attacked, try to stay on your feet. Fighting a mountain lion off with a rock or a stick is often enough to discourage it.

Remember, most wild animals are frightened of humans. We are used to being on top of the food chain, so it’s natural to be scared of animals that are capable of displacing us from that position. However, even top predators normally don’t want to eat people. A wolf or a bear does not look at a human and see prime rib. Only the weak, sick and desperate generally see us as food. In almost all circumstances, if you are respectful of animals and give them their space, they will be equally respectful of you.

Imagine this…you’ve hiked several miles into a remote wilderness area, and you have finally reached the end of trail. You know that over the next ridge there is a gorgeous waterfall. However, when you finally reach your destination, you are horrified to discover that the area is littered with beer cans, plastic bags, uneaten food, and most disgustingly, a dirty diaper! Wouldn’t that be a huge disappointment? When you are hiking and backpacking, you have a responsibility to create as little impact as possible on the environment. You owe it to the people who will come to the area after you, to the animals that call the area home, and to nature itself.

How can you enjoy nature without disturbing it? The Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics is an organization that is dedicated to low-impact hiking and camping. Their philosophy and principles, known as Leave No Trace, have been adopted by many hikers and backpackers. Leave No Trace principles address two primary concerns: environmental impact and aesthetic impact. The basic philosophy of Leave No Trace can be summed up in a well-known slogan: Leave only footprints, and take only pictures.

In practice, Leave No Trace consists of seven principles that guide how you should conduct yourself when hiking and camping. Here are the seven principles:

§         Plan ahead and prepare: Planning ahead can help you reduce your environmental impact. Make sure you know what the rules are for the area you are traveling in. Most of the time, these rules and regulations are there for a reason: to keep the area in an attractive, natural state. For example, fire regulations are in place to keep you from starting a wildfire, which could burn down the forest and endanger wildlife and other campers.

§          Travel and camp on durable surfaces: You may not think of setting up a tent as a harmful activity, but tents can impact the area you camp in by crushing fragile vegetation. Fires burn hot and can scorch the earth, and moving rocks to create a fire ring disturbs the creatures that live under the rocks. So, choose your campsite carefully. Look for areas that are free of vegetation, or camp in sites that someone else has already used.  If you are camping in area where no one has camped before, try to alter the area as little as possible. When you leave, try to use leaves or pine needles to erase footprints and other areas where vegetation has been removed and soil exposed.  Stick to existing trails unless the trail has been blocked by an obstacle such as a fallen tree-creating your own “shortcuts” by circumventing switchbacks harms vegetation and creates erosion.

§         Dispose of waste properly: Out of all of the seven principles, this one is probably the most important to follow. There are two types of waste that you will need to be concerned about in wilderness areas:  trash and your own waste. As far as trash is concerned, follow this simple rule: You pack it in, you pack it out! This includes any and all plastics, cardboard packaging that has been marked with colored ink, soda cans, beer cans, etc. If you are strong enough to drag a six-pack of beer out into the woods, you are obviously strong enough to carry out the empties! Even better, try to create some good karma by packing out trash that other people have left. As far as using the bathroom goes…when you have to pee, just find an out of the way place to do it. When you have to go do “number 2,” you will need to dig a cathole. A cathole is the preferred method of disposing of solid waste because it keeps it out of the way of other people and animals as it decomposes. In most cases, the cathole needs to be 6-8 inches deep. However, in the desert it should be shallower, only 4 to 6 inches. Make sure to fill in the cathole with dirt after you’re done! Also, location is important-make sure that when you use the bathroom you are at least 200 feet from the nearest water source!

§         Leave what you find: Wilderness areas are full of treasures: dainty wildflowers, interesting rocks, possibly even artifacts such as old arrowheads. It can be tempting to take souveneirs, but you shouldn’t remove items from natural habitats. Also, try to leave natural areas as you find them-including your campsite.

§         Minimize campfire impacts: Leave no trace often means forgoing a campfire completely in favor of a stove and a lantern or candle. However, if you are going to have a campfire, you should try to minimize its impact. For example, only have a fire if you are in an area that has enough wood to provide ample firewood. If wood is scarce, that’s a sign that either there is not enough natural firewood available to make having a fire practical, or the area has been over-harvested. Only use a fire ring if there was already one there when you arrived at the campsite-don’t build them. If possible, use a metal firepan instead or build your fire on top of a mound of dirt, at least 3-5 inches thick. Once the fire is completely extinguished, scatter the ashes. Also, make sure to consider fire safety: check the regulations for the area you visit first, do not leave a burning fire unattended, and extinguish it completely with water when you’re done. Remember, this is not only a matter of preserving wilderness, it’s a matter of personal safety for you, the firefighters that would be called in to fight a fire, and the people that live nearby. Finally, if you start a forest fire you could be held liable for the cost of putting it out.

§         Respect wildlife: If you are lucky enough to encounter an animal on the trail, observe it from a distance but leave it in peace. Don’t follow the animal, chase it, or allow your dog to chase it. Make as little noise as possible so as not to frighten the animals.

§         Be considerate of other visitors: In addition to avoiding environmental impact, someone committed to Leave No Trace ethics also tries to avoid creating an aesthetic impact on natural areas. Don’t play loud music, scream, run, or fight-this can disturb other visitors to the area. Choose campsites that are out of sight of the trail-ideally, other visitors should not be able to see you. Also, don’t use gear that is brightly or unnaturally colored-try to blend in with the natural surroundings. However, use common sense-this particular Leave No Trace principle should be modified during hunting season. If there is a chance that you might encounter a hunter on the trail, you should NOT try to blend in to the area. Wear hunter orange, and a lot of it. If you are bringing your dog with you, the dog should also have something orange on.

Using the Leave No Trace principles as ethical guidelines whenever you are out in the wilderness can help you minimize your impact on the earth, preserving the wilderness experience for other hikers as well as for future generations.

Fortunately, it doesn’t have to end this way. With proper planning, you can introduce a novice to the joys of backpacking and still have a great experience. However, there are several steps that you’ll need to take to ensure a smooth trip for everyone. To start, think back to the mistakes that you made when you first started backpacking, and what you learned from those mistakes. Many of these lessons about successful hiking that you learned over time have become conditioned behavior for you by now, things you do without even consciously thinking about them. Since you don’t have to think about these behaviors, it’s easy to forget that other people don’t know any better. This article will help you overcome these obstacles so that you can plan and execute an easy backpacking trip that even a new backpacker will enjoy.

The first step in introducing backpacking to a new hiker is to choose a good route. Choose a trail that’s short-a 4-6 mile overnighter is best. Someone who’s never backpacked before may not be in as good shape as they think they are. Even if your friend loves hiking, he or she may not be conditioned enough for the extra effort involved in backpacking. It takes a lot more energy to hike a trail with a pack on than it does to hike the same trail without a pack. Also, choose a trail with some sort of payoff at the end of it.  For example, look for a dramatic waterfall, an expansive view, or an inviting creek. Give your new hiking buddy something to look forward to as they slog along the trail with you.

The next step involves dividing up the load. Depending on your friend’s physical condition, you may need to make room in your pack for some of the heavier items. This is another reason to choose a short route-it allows you to be the workhorse without too much discomfort. This is especially true if your friend does not have a frame backpack. If he or she only has a daypack, they should only attempt to carry a change of clothes and possibly some snacks. Everything else goes in your pack!

The final step is the most important: the five point inspection. Yes, your friend is an adult and should be able to take care of themselves. Remember, though, that people who have never gone backpacking before often have no idea how to dress or how to pack.  I have taken novices down a short trail that should have been easy, but it quickly became tortuous for all of us. One of the girls was wearing a pair of sandals, the other had brought her entire CD collection and a personal CD player. There is a right time and a wrong time to discover that your friend has no idea what they are doing. The right time is before the trip starts, when you can actually do something about it. The wrong time is 2 miles down the trail, when your friend develops major back pain or a blister the size of a baseball. The five point inspection ensures that you are BOTH prepared for the trip. Here are the five points to inspect:

• Footwear- Check to make sure that your friend is wearing proper footwear for the trail. They should be wearing hiking boots that will provide them an appropriate amount of traction and support. Otherwise, they will develop painful blisters. If this happens, the hike out the next day will be even worse. If they can’t find appropriate footwear, the itinerary needs to change from backpacking to car camping.

• Pack- Next, go through your friend’s backpack. Remember, he or she has never been backpacking before and may not know the difference between essential items and unnecessary items. Also, they may think their pack weight is fine when the try the backpack on at home-only to have it seemingly grow heavier and heavier with each step taken along the trail. Overloading a pack with unnecessary items may be slightly more of a problem for girls than for boys, but both genders are vulnerable and all new backpacker’s packs should be inspected. If you find unnecessary items, remove them from the pack and explain gently yet firmly why they need to be left at home. If your companion can’t live without deodorant body spray or 15 compact discs worth of music for one night, you might want to reconsider taking them backpacking with you.

• Clothing- It may be warm enough for a short-sleeved shirt and shorts when you leave for the trail, but if it’s going to get cold at night you need to make sure your friend has some warm clothes, too. Make sure that they have packed appropriate clothing for the season and the terrain.

• Basic trail knowledge- Educate your new backpacking companion on basic trail practices, including proper practice for using the bathroom.

• Attitude-Having a positive attitude is one of the keys to an enjoyable trip. Make sure your companion is confident and looking forward to the experience. If he or she seems to be dreading the trip, you may need to change plans.

Also, if you are a guy who is trying to share his passion for backpacking with his girlfriend, try to make the experience as romantic as possible. For example, pack a bottle of wine in a plastic bottle and some small votive candles to go with dinner. Even if she doesn’t see the appeal in climbing up a mountain with a night’s worth of food, water and clothing on her back, these small gesture will hopefully warm her heart enough that she eventually forgives you!

Using these guidelines will ensure that your new hiking companion has a positive experience their first time on the trail. It may seem to you like you are babysitting, but remember you have knowledge and experience and your friend does not. It’s up to you to teach your friend how to backpack safely, intelligently, and with respect for the environment. If he or she has an awful experience on their first trip, they may never go out with you again. On the other hand, if you plan the trip carefully, you’ll both have fun and you might have someone new to accompany you on your adventures.

After a long, hard day of hiking, nothing beats sliding into a warm, comfortable sleeping bag, right? Well, unless you get cold, or there is nothing in between that large rock on the ground and the small of your back, or your sleeping bag doesn’t fit right…These conditions can make for a long night, as you toss and turn but can’t quite seem to fall asleep. In order to sleep comfortably on a backpacking trip, it’s important to put some thought into your sleep system. There are several different variables that you simply have to consider if you are going to get a good night’s sleep.

First, you need to choose the right sleeping bag. There is a dizzying array of bags on the market right now. How do you know which one is right for you? The first step is to determine what temperatures you will be sleeping in. If you plan on doing any camping in the late fall, early spring, or winter, you need to have a bag that will keep you warm even when the mercury drops. Manufacturers usually list a temperature rating on their bags, which tells you the lowest temperature at which you can expect to sleep comfortably. However, if you know that you usually get cold when you sleep, you should aim for a bag that’s rated for a lower temperature than the coldest night you expect to encounter. Temperature rating is extremely important-if you are too cold, you won’t sleep. Period.

The next item to consider is weight. As a backpacker, you want to choose a pack that will keep you warm at night without breaking your back during the day. The bag weight, in pounds, is usually listed along with the temperature rating. Compare the two to get the bag’s warmth-to-rate ratio, the ratio between how warm the bag is and how heavy. In most cases, the weight of a bag goes hand-in-hand will the materials used to make it. Down bags usually provide the best warmth-to-weight ratio, but there are some good synthetic substitutes if you don’t believe in using animal products. Also, if having an eco-friendly bag is important to you, some manufacturers have sleeping bags made out of recycled materials such as plastic water bottles. Finally, some sleeping bag manufacturers produce light yet warm bags that save weight by doing away with the bottom layer of insulation and relying solely on a sleeping pad to insulate you from the ground.

There are two different styles of bag: rectangular bags and mummy bags. Mummy bags are shaped to fit the curves of the human body, like the wooden cases that ancient Egyptians used to hold their mummified dead. Rectangular bags are just that: large rectangles. For temperature ratings and warmth-to-weight ratio, mummy bags are superior to rectangular bags because they do a more efficient job of conserving heat. In a rectangular bag, your body has to heat all of the corners to stay warm. In a mummy bag, you have much less space to have to try and heat up. However, if you need to toss and turn in your sleep, you may prefer a rectangular bag to a mummy bag.

What if you are in a relationship? If you want to be able to share body heat at night with that special someone, many bags from the same manufacturer can be zipped together. Mateable bags are great because they let you snuggle, but you may lose some warmth from mummy bags because the zipped-together bag is so much looser than a single mummy bag would be. Some companies do make wedge-shaped mummy bag expanders. These expanders can create enough room for two in any mummy bag with a compatible zipper.

After you choose a sleeping bag, the next component of a quality sleep system is a sleeping pad. Sleeping pads are important because they put space between you and the ground, which prevents the ground from sucking your precious body heat away. For backpacking, you have 3 possible types of sleeping pad to choose from. An open-celled foam pad is a soft foam pad made with many open air cells. Closed-cell foam pads are stiffer and have closed air cells. A self-inflating foam pad is an open-air pad with a nylon shell. Open-celled foam pads are comfortable and warm, but the tiny open cells mean they act like sponges in wet conditions. Closed-cell pads are warm and they repel water, but they are stiff and don’t provide a very good cushion from the ground.

Both open-celled and closed-cell pads are fairly cheap, but if you have the money, opt for a self-inflating foam pad. Self-inflating pads are superior for backpacking because they provide the cushioning power of open-celled foam while the nylon shell keeps the pad water-resistant. Also, there are chair kits available for self-inflating sleeping pads. After a long day of hiking, sitting down on something relatively soft with a little bit of lower back support is heavenly! When you buy a sleeping pad, you will need to decide if you want to get one that is only ¾ the length of your body, to save weight, or whether you want to get a full-length pad for maximum warmth and comfort. If you plan on doing winter camping in cold conditions, a full-length pad will do a much better job of keeping you toasty. For couples, some sleeping pads can be mated together, and if you are in a serious relationship they are a worthy investment. Two separate sleeping pads will often shift out from under you as you sleep.

Finally, it’s time to consider the extras that make an ordinary sleep system extraordinary. For example, silk mummy bag liners can add a little bit of warm and an indulgent feeling of comfort to an ordinary mummy bag. They don’t weigh very much, and they also have a practical purpose:  keeping the inside of the sleeping bag clean. Down bags in particular can be a pain to clean, so this is more important than it might sound. Also, what about a pillow? Obviously, you don’t want to sacrifice the weight or the space required to lug an overstuffed pillow from your bed, but does that mean you have to lay your head on the hard ground? Actually, you can create a pillow by folding up some of the clothes you brought with you, or you can purchase a lightweight, inflatable pillow made especially for backpacking.

Once you’ve assembled the sleep system of your dreams, plan a trip and test it out. You’ll be astonished how much better you feel on the morning after you’ve had a good night’s sleep!

Meat

I love a good pork chop, bbq salmon and yes even a hot dog or bratwurst when I am camping, and it’s a special treat when you are backpacking over a few days.  I follow very specific rules when I am attempting this and will pack it out if I have doubts to the quality of meat before it goes on the grill (or skewered…).

• Pack the meat right before you take off on your trip, if you are driving to the trail head pack it in a cooler with lots of ice.  The idea is once you hit the trail it is frozen solid.
• If the outdoor temperature is over 75 degrees, after a long day on the trail it’s probably about time to eat your Chop.  Another day on the trail and you are risking that meat for dinner the next night.
• Spam does not go bad…
• Stay away from ground meat.  Hamburger, chicken and even turkey thaw out very fast and are prone to bacteria in the way they are handled.  Don’t even bring it with you.
• Pre-season your meats before you freeze it.  Not only increases the flavor of the meat, it makes no preparation time when you are ready to cook.  Just slide it out of the zip-lock bag onto the grill or pan.
• If you want a carnivorous dinner the second night you have 2 options: 1) The meat is still frozen in the morning of the second night (good job packing that!) or 2) cook a hotdog.  Hotdogs are packed with preservatives and can last several days if it isn’t to hot.
• Cook your meats all the way through.  Medium well is appropriate for being in the woods.
• Seal all bones, gristle and leftovers in your bear bag.  Seal it up tight.

Food

There are a ton of great books on foraging and eating outdoors, know what you are doing and don’t take any chances.  Did you see the move “Into the Wild”?

Clean

Just like in a kitchen, keeping your hands, utensils AND ingredients clean are important food safety precautions.

• Get yourself a bottle of all natural soap, clean your hands before you start cooking, after you handle meat AND just before cooking.  The hand sanitizer works great if you aren’t covered in chunks of pork fat.
• When working with food, use paper towels or some other disposal rag when you are wiping your hands and face.  Using your camp towel, shirt or other fabric could transfer or result in bacteria growth.  Store this in your bear bag.
• Use sand or a paper towels to clean your bowls & utensils.  Don’t use your camp towel (the one you dry your face with).  Be patient and leave them clean and dry.

Water

Keeping your water safe to drink is essential.  There are many different water filtering and purification devices on the market today, bring what makes sense to your pack size and adventure.

• MSR MIOX Purifier
• Katadyn Micropur Purification Tablets – 30 pack
• Hydro Photon SteriPEN Adventurer
• MSR SweetWater Microfilter
• Katadyn Hiker Pro Water Microfilter

First Aid

I guess it could happen to anyone.  You don’t follow the rules and you wind up with either a bad case of cramps & diarrhea or worse.  There are several things you can do to try and cure the crud but time is usually the only thing that works 100% of the time.

• Constantly drink water.  If you have a natural source around treat some immediately and begin drinking.  You can’t drink to much, at least a liter an hour.  The organisms responsible for most food poisoning incidents tend to draw moisture from surrounding tissues into the intestines.
• Eat bread.  It can help soak up the undigested poison and pass it through your body quicker.
• Take your multivitamin.  Give your body a boost of energy, metabolism and vitamins to help you through this.

Food Remedies

There are several foods that have been known to cure food poisoning.  I am simply referencing other sources of information found on the internet and don’t condone or rely on these statements to cure your belly ache.  You may or may not be carrying these items but you never know.

• Bread
• Apple Cider Vinegar
• Grape Fruit Seed Extract
• Lemon Juice
• Herbal Tea, Chamomile, Mint
• Ginger

Obviously the best cure is the prevention.  With all of this worry and remedy around food poisoning I still find it important to explore the most fun ways to cook my favorite meals on the trail.  Just need to be careful!

The most important element in hiking safely is prevention. Many of the most common trail injuries can be prevented by using your common sense. For example, wear proper hiking boots that fit correctly to prevent blisters. Also, make sure to break in new hiking shoes before you hit the trail with them. Learn how to recognize common poisonous plants and animals in your area. Poison ivy, poison oak and poison sumac are found in many parts of the US. If you don’t know what they look like, you won’t know to avoid them. Check your shoes for spiders, scorpions, and other nasty creatures before you put them on. Watch where you put your feet during the day, and don’t walk around rough, unfamiliar terrain after dark. Use the buddy system-don’t hike alone. Finally, be careful when using sharp implements such as an ice axe or a pocketknife!

Even if you are careful and use common sense, accidents can happen. So, you should also make sure that you take a first aid kit with you on every hike, even if it’s just a day hike. The amount of supplies you will need depends on the size of your group, the length of your trip, and the types of hazards you might encounter along the way. Before each trip, pull out your first aid kit and inspect it, replacing any items that have been used up. Here is a checklist of items to have on hand:

- Tweezers: For pulling out splinters
- Moleskin-tape over hot spots on your feet to cushion skin and prevent or treat blisters
- Duct tape-can be used instead of moleskin on blisters, and can also be used to repair gear and to fashion a bandage if necessary.
- Hand sanitizer
- Rubbing alcohol pads
- Travel-sized packets of antibiotic ointment for treating cuts and raw, broken blisters
- Travel-sized packets of hydrocortisone cream for bug bites and poison ivy
- Sterile gauze
- Medical tape-omit if you have duct tape on hand
- Band-aids in various sizes
- Butterfly bandages
- A wrap-around cloth bandage
- Ibuprofen
- An antihistamine
- An antacid or other product that treats indigestion

Optional items:
- Space blanket
- An Epi-Pen: Available by prescription only, this is a must-have if you or anyone in your hiking party has a severe allergy to bee stings or wasp stings
- Cold pack: Good for sprains and strains, this lightweight packet produces cold through a chemical reaction
- Emergency signaling device: whistle, mirror, GPS beacon, etc.
- A small amount of aloe vera for treating burns-try repackaging it in a film canister

How to Treat Common Injuries
Even a well-stocked first aid kit does you no good at all if you don’t know how to use it. With that in mind, here are basic first aid procedures for some common injuries you might encounter on the trail.

Cuts: If the cut is minor, simply clean it with an alcohol pad, apply antibiotic ointment, and cover it with a band-aid. If it is bleeding a lot, use the bandanna or a gauze pad to apply firm pressure to the cut for 10 minutes. This will help stop the bleeding. Then, clean the cut, apply antibiotic ointment, and bandage it. If the cut is very deep and looks like it needs stitches, first apply pressure to stop bleeding as described above. Then, clean the wound and use the butterfly bandages to close the flaps of skin and keep them together. Tape gauze over the area to keep dirt out, and go for medical attention as soon as you can.

Burns: First aid for burns depends on the severity. First degree burns are minor burns that cause redness and pain. They can simply be treated with aloe vera to reduce pain. Second degree burns go beyond the top layer of skin and cause blisters. Do not puncture the blisters. If they pop on their own, apply antibiotic ointment and a bandage. An over the counter pain reliever like ibuprofen will make the pain more manageable. For first degree and small (less than 3 inches in diameter) second degree burns, it helps to immerse the burned area in cool water if it’s available. However, do not use ice or a cold pack as this will further traumatize the skin. For large second degree burns or third degree burns, immersion in cold water can cause shock. For these severe burns, wrap the area loosely in a bandage and get medical help as soon as possible!

Blisters: This is by far the most common trail injury. Check your feet at lunch and again at the end of the day. Hot spots are red, painful areas that haven’t blistered yet but are likely to in the near future. Cover these immediately with moleskin or duct tape and you may be able to stop the blister from forming. If you do get a blister, don’t pop it. Wrap it in moleskin or duct tape to cushion the area and keep it from getting any worse. If it bursts on its own, apply antibiotic ointment to prevent infection.

Stings, Bites and rashes- For mosquito bites, apply hydrocortisone cream to reduce itching. For bee and wasp stings, take an antihistamine to help reduce your body’s reaction to the venom. A cold pack will help reduce swelling, and ibuprofen will help reduce pain. If you notice swelling at sites away from the sting, and especially if you experience trouble breathing, you may be having a serious allergic reaction. Take more antihistamine and get to a hospital as soon as possible.

Sprains- A sprain is an injury to a ligament. It usually happens to the ankles or knees. This is one of the more disabling of the common trail injuries. To treat, stop walking as soon as possible. Apply a cold pack, or immerse the limb in a cold mountain stream if you’re in that type of area. This will help reduce inflammation and swelling. Take an ibuprofen to reduce inflammation and help with pain. Then, wrap the area in a compression bandage. If you are far away from the trailhead and the end of the day is near, it’s best to stay where you are for the night and treat the sprain. Then, you can head out in the next day, by which time some of the pain will hopefully have subsided.

Hiking out with an injury- If you have a minor injury but can still make it to the trailhead on your own, you should begin to hike out as soon as it’s safe to do so. When hiking out on injury, remember to take the easiest route possible and go slowly. Find a stick or tree branch to use a crutch if needed. Also, take as much weight out of your pack as you can. If you have a buddy, he or she may be able to take your heavier items. If you are by yourself, you may have to ditch many of the items in your pack and come back for them later. However, if you’re alone and not sure if you can make it out in one day, don’t leave essentials that you’ll need if you have to spend another night outside.

Running, 5mph- 576
Running, 10mph- 1224
Swimming, moderate- 414
Swimming, vigorous- 666
Stair step, rowing, or
Ski machine, or
Stationary bicycle- 477
Weight lifting, general- 234
Weight lifting, vigorous- 414

Now, let us compare these numbers to three types of hiking. Calorie burn is still based on 150 pound person who spends one hour at the activity.
Backpacking- 477
Cross country- 405
Mountain/hill hiking- 536

Most of the gym activities are typically done for about one hour unless you are an athlete in training. However when you are out hiking, you are probably out for four or more hours. You may even be on a backpacking trip that will last for one or more weeks. The calorie burn looks much different when viewed as a total activity.
Backpacking, 4 hours- 1908
Cross country, 4 hours- 1620
Mtn/hill, 4 hours- 2144

Now let us look at muscle building in the various activities. A muscle building activity is one that is weight-bearing where the body is working against gravity. Compared to the other activities, hiking can be a total body workout. Weight lifting, running, and most of the exercise machines target only specific muscles. Although swimming is a great exercise, it is not really muscle building since it is not weight bearing. Hiking, especially if using a walking stick or includes some climbing, can strengthen most of the large muscles in the body.

So what are the dietary needs of the long distance hiker as compared to the person working out in the gym? When working out in the gym, you only need to consume enough calories to make up for the calories that were burned. So depending on the activity, you would need to increase your calorie intake by 200-600 calories. To get the best muscle building effects, the calories would need to be mostly protein. These calories can be eaten at any time during the day.

For hiking, especially long distance hiking, the dietary needs are much different. You must take your food in with you, so you will need calorie dense food. If you are hiking for several days you need food for each day that you are on the trail. The easiest food is that which does not need cooking or other preparation. Nuts, jerky, granola, gorp, dried fruit, crackers, chocolate, some cheeses, peanut butter, and powdered milk are good calorie rich, yet lightweight foods. A person weighing 150 pounds should consume approximately 2000 calories per day to maintain weight. Add to that the calories burned while hiking four hours and you reach an approximate total of 4000 calories needed each day. Most likely you will be unable to bring enough food with you to supply this quantity of food. Just be certain that you include enough nutritious, calorie-laden foods so that you are not starving at the end of the day.

Trail-Ready Ingredients

To get started, take a trip to your local supermarket. Although there is no “backpacking foods” section, a trip through the aisles will reveal a variety of trail ready ingredients: oatmeal, soup mixes, dried fruits, nuts, dried pasta, envelopes of powdered sauces, sun dried tomatoes, tortillas and wraps, and ethnic foods such as couscous can all be the basis for wonderful trail recipes. In the frozen foods section, you’ll find bags of vegetables that you can take home and dry in your dehydrator or oven. Canned beans can also be dehydrated. If you’re a carnivore, look for envelopes of chicken, shelf stable bacon, shelf-stable packs of pepperoni, summer sausage, salmon, etc.

Basically, look for anything that is dry and/or lightweight. Packaging is important, too. For example, don’t get heavy cans of meat if you can buy the exact same product packaged in a lighter foil envelope.

Assembling a recipe

Use the ingredients that you’ve found to come up with some recipes. For example, chicken in a foil pouch, an envelope of dry pesto, and some pasta can add up to a gourmet pasta dish. Shelf-stable bacon, a packet of instant mashed potatoes, some powdered milk and some chicken broth can make a hearty bacon and potato chowder.

Use your imagination, and you can come up with a trail version of almost any dish that you enjoy eating. For chicken pot pie, try an envelope of vegetable soup mix (or some dehydrated vegetables), a packet of chicken, some bouillon, some powdered milk, and seasonings. You can use just-add-water baking mix for a crust.

Dehydrating without a dehydrator

Learning how to dehydrate foods opens up new worlds in terms of what you can bring on the trail. Dehydrating foods helps preserve them, and makes them lighter and easier to carry. A dehydrator is great for this, but if you don’t have one you can also use a regular oven. First, line a cookie sheet with some wax paper or parchment paper. Next, spread the food that you are trying to dehydrate out on the cookie sheet in a single later. You can dehydrate liquids, too-just spread them out in a thin layer so that they’ll dry out in a reasonable amount of time. Now, turn your oven on to the “Warm” setting. Set the cookie sheet in the oven, and use oven mitts or a potholder to prop the door open by an inch or two. This gives allows the liquid evaporating out of the food to escape from the oven.

Depending on what you are trying to dehydrate, the process may take hours or even a couple of days. Check the food periodically, and turn vegetables over on the cookie sheet so that they dry evenly. Vegetables are done when they are either leathery or crisp, without any pockets of moisture inside. Liquids and sauces usually dry to into “leathers,” with the consistency of one of those fruit roll-up snacks you used to eat as a child. Tear these leathers into small pieces for faster rehydrating. The only thing that you can’t dehydrate is fat. It becomes rancid quickly, so fatty foods like salmon, ground beef with fat, or sauces made with a lot of oil are a bad choice.

Spice It Up!

Spices are an essential part of cooking, even while backpacking. Of course, you won’t want to carry an entire spice rack in your pack, but you can pack some of your favorite spices in small plastic bags.

Cooking Techniques
Many backpacking meals, such as soups, stews and pastas, can be cooked in a single pan, which makes clean up easy. Some meals can simply be rehydrated in a freezer bag or a steamer bag by using boiling water. Dry muffin mixes can be packaged with the appropriate amount of powdered milk and cooked at camp. You can bake small amounts of muffin mix or other types of quickbread using the following method: Add the correct amount water and baking mix into an oven bag. Combine the water and the mix by kneading the bag, then tie the oven bag closed and place it in boiling water. Whatever you decide to cook, remember to focus on foods that can be cooked with boiling water, as that is the easiest and most reliable way to cook over a fire.
Next time you go backpacking, try one of these easy, lightweight and delicious recipes:

Recipes
Backpacker’s Chicken and Dumplings

Ingredients:
1 foil pouch of chicken
1 envelope vegetable soup mix
1 cup powdered milk
2 cubes chicken bouillon
½ teaspoon parsley flakes
½ teaspoon of sage
¼ teaspoon of thyme
¼ teaspoon of black pepper
1 bay leaf
1 cup of just-add-water baking mix
2 tablespoons of powdered milk or buttermilk

At Home
In one bag, combine vegetable soup mix, 1 cup of powdered milk, chicken bouillon, herbs and pepper.
In another bag, combine baking mix and 2 tablespoons of powdered milk and buttermilk.

At camp
In a big pot, combine contents of soup mix bag and chicken with 6-8 cups of water. Heat the mixture on a stove or over a fire until the vegetables are tender.
Add approximately 1/2 cup of water to the bag with the baking mix in it. Combine the water and the baking mix by kneading the bag.
Drop baking mix into the chicken soup by spoonfuls. Let everything simmer for 5-10 minutes, until the dumplings are light and fluffy.

Bacon and Corn Chowder
1 package of precooked shelf-stable bacon
1 box of scalloped potatoes
1 envelope of instant mashed potatoes (3.8 oz)
1 cup of powdered milk
1 14.5 oz can of corn
2 cubes of chicken bouillon
1 bay leaf
½ tablespoon minced onions
½ teaspoon garlic powder
½ teaspoon parsley flakes

At home
Dehydrate corn in an oven until it is dry. In one bag, combine dehydrated corn and scalloped potatoes with chicken bouillon, bay leaf, garlic, parsley and onions.

In another bag, combine the instant mashed potatoes, powdered milk, and the cheese sauce mix from the scalloped potatoes.

At camp
Tear bacon into small pieces. Combine bacon and contents of the first bag in a large pot. Add 6-8 cups of water and mix well. Cook for 20-30 minutes, until corn and potatoes are soft.

Add the contents of the second bag and stir well. Cook for 5 more minutes and then serve.